|
DISCUSSION: In order for a fire to occur, it requires fuel, oxygen, and some ignition source. Moisture is a key determinant in the flammability of fuel, especially trees, branches, etc. Hence, even in the midst of a drought, keeping at least a small section of the forest well-watered may help protect that section of forest from a wildfire.
Beavers tend to live in forests and use nearby materials (e.g., rocks, sticks, etc.) to build dams in streams or rivers. This provides an area of calm water which is advantageous for them. They also dig channels that extend away from their calm pools of water which may serve as irrigation channels for the nearby forest. A study recently conducted out of California State University Channel Islands looked at a handful of fires that occurred where beavers live. They used satellite data to assess differences in the health of vegetation before and after the fires. They compared the differences adjacent to streams where the beavers lived and farther away from the impacts of the beavers. Results of this study suggest that the vegetation near the beaver habitat was protected from the impacts of the fire, while the trees that were not irrigated by the beavers were more likely to be burned. The irrigation from the beavers’ construction allowed the trees nearby to stay too moist to burn. The video above produced by Emily Fairfax, the principal investigator on the study, illustrates how the process works. Basically, beavers may be inadvertently helping to mitigate the impacts of wildfires. Irrigating vegetation near waterways may have other benefits in addition to just protecting that vegetation from a wildfire. Without irrigation, fires often burn right up to the edge of a river or stream. This allows additional runoff of sediment and contaminants into the waterway during precipitation after the fire which can impact water quality, navigation, and flooding. However, if vegetation near a waterway is protected during a fire (via beaver [or human] irrigation), this relatively healthy vegetation near the waterway after a fire may help reduce the flow of sediment and contaminants into that waterway. In summary, beavers may be important for many reasons including helping to protect vegetation and waterways from the impacts of wildfires. To learn more about wildfires, be sure to click here! ©2020 Meteorologist Dr. Ken Leppert II
0 Comments
 DISCUSSION: In general, a bigger and/or more intense wildfire is more difficult to contain and put out. Thus, catching fires early when they are still small is critical to putting them out quicker. Traditionally, most fires in the U.S. have been spotted by people who live nearby or from people in planes or look-out towers. This non-automated method of identifying fires can be slow and may suffer from other issues as well. For example, the fire may not be identified at all if it occurs far from populated areas. In addition, observing smoke likely indicates a fire is present, but its exact location may be difficult to determine from observations of smoke from the ground.
Another way to detect fires is to use satellite data. Satellite channels that are sensitive to reflected visible radiation can sense smoke from fires. From the high-level perspective of the satellite, observations of smoke can more easily be traced to their source, unlike smoke observations from the ground. In addition, thermal IR satellite sensors may be sensitive to the high temperature of a fire relative to its surroundings. However, just like ground-based observations of fires, satellite-based observations also have drawbacks. For example, smoke is difficult to sense above a highly reflective surface like snow. The spatial resolution of the IR channels on the latest National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration geostationary satellites (GOES 16 and 17) is ~2 km. When fires first begin, they are much smaller than this. Thus, when the IR channels measure an average temperature over the 2-km pixel, the signal from the larger, cooler area around the fire will overwhelm the fire signal, making the fire difficult, if not impossible to detect. Recently, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques in meteorology has been rapidly increasing. These techniques can automatically, efficiently, and accurately identify patterns in large datasets like satellite datasets. A company in New Mexico, Descartes Labs, has recently applied AI to satellite data in order to identify wildfires faster. The AI can key in on subtle cues and trends in the imagery that indicate smoke from fires or the high temperature of a fire, for example. The company claims they can detect fires as small as 10 acres in size in as little as 9 minutes from the time the satellite imagery is collected. For example, this technique was able to identify the precise location of the California Kincade fire (pictured above on 27 October 2019) shortly after the fire started. Any tool that can help identify fires more quickly and more accurately may allow first responders to arrive on-scene quicker and put out the fire faster, thereby minimizing impacts to people and property. The AI method of identifying fires developed by Descartes Labs may be a promising tool for such identification of wildfires. To learn more about fire weather and impacts of fires, be sure to click here! ©2020 Meteorologist Dr. Ken Leppert II  DISCUSSION: Wildfires have a dramatic impact on the landscape. Obviously, fires clear vegetation, which can be clearly seen in the picture above which shows the landscape after the Woolsey Fire in Southern California (U.S.). The burn scar (brown area) is so large, it can be viewed from space.
The effects of fires on the landscape subsequently impacts how water interacts with the surface (i.e., hydrology). Without vegetation to hold soil in place, rains and their resulting runoff tend to erode more soil away. This can deposit more sediment into streams and rivers, reducing their capacity to carry water, and increasing flood risk. Under normal conditions, some rain soaks into the soil. This reduces the amount of runoff and reduces downstream flood risk. However, the intense heat from fires can actually cause soil grains to fuse together, reducing the amount of water that can soak into the soil. This effect increases runoff and flood risk. A recent study found that not all fires cause soil to repel water to the same degree. This water repellency depends on fire characteristics (e.g., intensity, duration), how much water is already in the soil, and the composition of the soil itself. For example, a fire that burns hotter and/or longer may increase the water repellency of soil after a fire. In addition, the study found that the soils can still be water repellent after more than a year. Thus, it may take a while for the soil to recover to pre-fire conditions. Fires can also impact local precipitation. For example, less vegetation after a fire results in less transpiration (evaporation from plants), potentially less water vapor in the air, and thus, less precipitation. However, another recent study found that measured snowfall at the ground actually increases after a fire. Prior to a fire, some snow is intercepted by trees. A large fraction of this intercepted snow sublimates (turns from solid to gas) before reaching the surface. In contrast, after a fire, more of the snow reaches the surface, and less sublimates. In the western U.S., a large fraction of water resources comes from melting snow in the mountains. Thus, a beneficial impact of fires is an increase in available fresh water from snowmelt. In summary, wildfires can exert both positive and negative impacts on local hydrology and water resources. They can increase the amount of fresh water available from snowmelt. But, they can also increase runoff, erosion, and flood risk. It is likely that the negative consequences of fires outweigh the positive in this case. Hence, it is probably NOT a good idea that we start fires in the mountains in an attempt to increase available water. To learn more about fire weather and impacts of fires, be sure to click here! ©2019 Meteorologist Dr. Ken Leppert II  DISCUSSION: On the night of October 23, 2019, a fire broke out in Sonoma County in California near the town of Geyserville. The cause of the fire is still yet to be determined but it has grown to 25,000 acres by October 26 before exploding to over 75,000 acres over the weekend. The fire was officially contained on November 6 after burning 77,000 acres. Among the main reasons the fire grew rapidly was due to a ridge of high pressure that was dominant over the Pacific Coast which brought dry and warm air into Northern and Central California. In addition to the dry warm air, the fire was aided by strong winds from the mountainous regions of the Sierra Nevada due to the sinking air that is often affiliated with ridges of high pressure.
The fire led Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) to implement power outages in the mountainous and hilly regions as a precaution due to prior fires involving their electric lines. PG&E took these steps as the National Weather Service (NWS) in Monterey issued red flag warnings over most of the Bay Area due to wind speeds that were expected to be up to 30 miles per hour with gusts up to 55 mph in some spots as well as the lingering dry and warm air. A red flag warning is issued to alert fire agencies that the weather will likely help spark and develop fires due to wind, low humidity and high temperatures. The winds decreased over the weekend and the temperature followed suit during the week, however, the humidity remained low due to a trough of low pressure that came in from the polar regions. The smoke of the fire also has led to the air quality in the Bay Area to worsen that Spare the Air alerts have been issued by the Bay Area Air Quality Management District since the smoke reaching and remaining in the lower levels of the atmosphere due to the winds. The decrease in wind also helped with the containment of the fire. In California, major fires often occur during the fall season with recent ones including the October 2017 outbreak with the Nuns, Tubbs, Atlas and Redwood Valley Complex fires and the Camp Fire in November 2018. To learn more about fire weather, be sure to click here! © 2019 Meteorologist JP Kalb  With California currently experiencing wildfires, and a large amount of California under an “elevated” risk for fire weather, it is important to understand some of the key factors that help fuel these fires. One of the most notorious factors is the Santa Ana winds. These winds are different from wind patterns that occur in other places of North America. The Santa Ana winds are also known as katabatic winds (which are found in places like Greenland) meaning that they originate from higher elevations and flow downhill to lower elevations bringing the air with them. Specifically, Santa Ana winds originate from high pressure systems over the Great Basin, which spans from eastern California to New Mexico, and as north as Wyoming and Idaho. The Great Basin has a very dry climate, which helps fuel these winds. For Santa Ana winds to form, a high pressure system over the Great Basin is needed. High pressure systems are clockwise anticyclonic winds with wind flow spreading out from the center. A basic diagram is included below to help you understand the flow of motion.  (Image from weather.gov)
These winds will then flow towards lower pressure, which is usually located off the California coast. The cool, dry air will flow outwards and eventually downwards towards California. When these air masses descend, through compression, the air warms. For every 1,000 ft that the air descends, the air warms by approximately 5-degree F. This makes for the winds that are now flowing towards parts of California to be very hot and very dry. These air masses that are descending and warming rapidly lead to a very hot and dry air mass that is then pushed over regions of Southern California. During the time of the year that Santa Ana winds occur, Southern California is experiencing some of the hottest temperatures that they see all year round. This air mass makes the air even hotter and drier. When thinking of fire, there are certain “ingredients” needed to help sustain a fire. You need a fuel source, heat, and oxygen. The fuel source in California wildfires is the vegetation on the ground, such as, brush, shrubs, and trees. Since there is no way to stop the oxygen input into a wildfire, the next variable ingredient is the heat input. These Santa Ana winds are bringing along a very hot and dry air mass to the region, which helps fuel the fire even more. They add more heat to the fires, and the winds push the fires into different regions and communities. When you add the Santa Ana winds to the California wildfires, the wildfires will become a greater threat. Thankfully, the U.S. Forest Service and firefighters are there to help mitigate the risks of these fires. Also, it is important to listen to the U.S. Forest Service and the National Weather Service to understand if your community is at risk and precautions to take. If your area isn’t at risk of wildfires, there are many different ways that you can help support people who are affected. The American Red Cross is a life-saving organization that helps many people who are affected by these wildfires. To learn more about fire weather, be sure to click here! Credits: Weather.gov and UAlbany ©2019 Weather Forecaster Allison Finch  74,155: That’s the number of forest fires that have occurred this past year in the Amazon Rainforest. The number is courtesy of the Brazil National Institute of Space Research, which calculated that the number of forest fires is up 84% from this time last year.
Wildfires in heavily forested areas of the world aren’t something new. As recent as 2018, forest fires occurred in Northern California, decimating large swaths of forestry and wiping entire towns off the map. The same year, Sweden experienced the most serious wildfires in the country’s history. Earlier in the Summer, wildfires ravaged parts of the Arctic, from Siberia to Alaska, as temperatures surged upward of 10 degrees Celsius above normal. Wildfires have occurred on almost every continent. Wildfires are often devastating, but the fires that have been burning in the Amazon Rainforest are different. In fact, they can be perplexing if you don’t understand the factors contributing to their cause. The region has been dubbed a rainforest for a reason—it gets tons of rain. In fact, areas of the rainforest can get up to 400 inches of rain a year. The air is often extremely saturated, with an average humidity of anywhere from 70-90%. This keeps the forest extremely fertile, and makes it a great home for a ton of animal species, many of which have yet to be discovered. Despite the Amazon being one of the most prominent regions in the world for biodiversity, the climate has slowly been changing. The Amazon Rainforest experienced the worst drought in over 100 years in 2005, according to the United Nations. The drought was likely to have been linked to climate change, but the warming earth is unlikely the only reason the forest is burning. In fact, deforestation is a huge factor in the rapid and unprecedented burning of the forest. The Amazon has been highly sought after for business ventures for decades, but previous efforts to conduct illegal operations in the rainforest have been thwarted by government intervention, both nationally and from environmental activists worldwide. However, an administrative change came with the election of President Jair Bolsonaro, who has publicly advocated for illegal burning of forestry in Brazil’s Amazon Rainforest. Illegal activities in the Amazon Rainforest are playing a massive role in the wildfires. This type of natural disaster is uncommon in the Amazon. Wildfires are not as commonplace as in parts of the U.S. or Europe. However, cutting down trees and leaving them to dry causes the fire-resistant forest to become a fire-prone region, according to a representative from the Rainforest Alliance. If this continues, the world’s largest rainforest, which allows humans to thrive, by producing some 20% of the world’s oxygen, will be no more, and this will have clear and disastrous effects on everyone, everywhere. To learn more about fire weather, be sure to click here! ©2019 Weather Forecaster Jacob Dolinger  Weather patterns in the summer months, particularly throughout western portions of the United States, provide hot and dry conditions ideal for the growth of wildfires. These fires destroy large areas of vegetation, damage property and cause significant human health problems. In addition wildfires, along with volcanic eruptions, can contribute to the formation of what are known as pyrocumulus clouds. These clouds can cause a number of issues that help contribute to the negative social impact of fire weather events.
Most are familiar with the large, white, puffy cumulus clouds commonly associated with calm weather days in the summertime. One of the most basic cloud forms, general cumulus clouds form as warm air at the Earth’s surface rises, cools and eventually condenses on particles called cloud condensation nuclei (or CCN). Condensation is simply the transformation of a substance from a gas to liquid state but, in the case of clouds, water vapor gas condenses into liquid water droplets. In the atmosphere, this process creates the characteristic puffy, cotton ball like form of fair weather cumulus clouds. Pyrocumulus clouds thus form as a result of intense heating at the surface, most commonly associated with wildfires or volcanic eruptions. The term “pyrocumulus” is Latin and translates literally to “fire cloud”, an incredibly accurate description. Since hot air is less dense than cold air, relatively warm air will rise upward while colder air sinks to the surface. In addition to heat, fires also produce large amounts of water vapor and carbon dioxide as byproducts of a chemical reaction known as oxidation. Therefore the upward motion of hot air at the ground transports water vapor and, in the case of wildfires and volcanic eruptions, smoke and ash to higher levels in the atmosphere. Smoke, ash and other similar particles can serve as CCN onto which water vapor may condense, eventually creating a pyrocumulus cloud. While pyrocumulus clouds share the puffy, cotton ball like appearance of fair weather cumulus clouds, the incorporation of smoke and ash turn pyrocumulus a dark gray color. Often times, this makes it difficult to distinguish between a pyrocumulus cloud and general smoke and ash produced by a burning fire or recent volcanic eruption. While seemingly harmless, pyrocumulus clouds can and do cause a number of problems. In some cases, these fire clouds can develop into pyrocumulonimbus, essentially thunderstorms capable of producing copious amounts of lightning. When lightning occurs away from precipitation (known as dry lightning) and in an already fire prone area, even more wildfires are likely to be produced. Additionally, these storms can be associated with strong downdrafts of cold air that spread out as they reach the surface. This outward movement of cold air at the surface can cause the wildfire to spread and make it even more difficult to keep under control. Despite the calm nature of regular cumulus clouds, pyrocumulus can create potentially hazardous conditions in areas already under the dangerous influence of fire weather. To learn more about various fire weather topics, click here! ©2019 Weather Forecaster Dennis Weaver  A home in Paradise, California ablaze by the flames of wildfire Camp Fire. Credit: Copyright Getty Images: Picture by Justin Sullivan The Camp Fire, a wildfire originating just north of Paradise, California, has been devastating northern California throughout the month of November, quickly becoming the most destructive and deadliest wildfire California has ever experienced. The severity of Camp Fire tops the prior deadliest wildfire in California, the Tubbs Fire, that nearly destroyed the city of Santa Rosa in October of 2017. Since the Camp Fire began at 6:30 AM on November 8th, the death toll had risen to 48 in only three days and nearly 200 people were missing, according to the San Francisco Chronicle. After spreading its explosive flames over 135,000 acres, the fire has been contained, as firefighters dug a trench surrounding the fire’s perimeter in order to prevent flames from spreading. In less than 24 hours, Camp Fire left homes, grocery stores, restaurants, and many other structures completely destroyed. Over 75,000 people were forced to evacuate their homes, and many ended up losing their homes to the demolition of the roaring flames. According to National Public Radio, Butte County Sheriff Kory Honea even stated that town officials requested over 100 National Guard troops to help search for more missing bodies. Within the past month, Camp Fire has gone on to completely devastate the town of Paradise.  The destruction left behind in Paradise, California by Camp Fire. Credit: AP Photo/John Locher Originating in the Sierra Nevada foothills, Camp Fire, along with many other wildfires in California, is common to this region due to the Santa Ana and the Diablo Winds. The Santa Ana and Diablo Winds are a weather event most common in the downslope region of the Sierra Nevada mountains during the fall and winter seasons. These strong downsloping winds originate from cool and dry airmasses located at the top of the mountains, usually associated with a high-pressure system. Initially, this surface high pressure system associated with cool air, diverging winds, and clockwise rotation, develops over the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range. These winds then flow down the slope of the mountains, compressing and thus warming as they descend, creating strong hot and dry winds. As these winds continue to flow eastward, they lower the relative humidity within the air and dry out the region. The winds may then flow through the canyons with gusts up to 40-50 mph, causing turbulent air and unpredictable conditions. Because California is already a relatively dry area, these hot dry winds are able to dry vegetation enough to spark wildfires in woodland areas, as well as increase the impact of already existing wildfires in areas nearby. The impact of the Santa Ana and Diablo Winds on wildfires in California can lead to even further rapid spreading of many future wildfires and increase their threat to Californians.  The severity of fire hazard zones across the state of California. Credit: Copyright: Maps of the World As of November 15th, at around 9:30 am, the Camp Fire had continued to spread and burn over a total of 140,000 acres in this short time, as the wildfire was still only 40 % contained. Now nearly a month later, the Camp Fire is contained after burning over 153,000 acres of land, destroying the town of Paradise and leaving a death toll of 81, a number greater than the death toll of the three past deadliest wildfires in California all combined. The surge of the Santa Ana and Diablo Winds is a powerful force over the Sierra Nevada mountains. It is important for residents of California to be aware and stay safe as future wildfires may continue to spiral out of control. To learn more about fire weather, be sure to click here! ©2018 Weather Forecaster Christina Talamo  Damage caused to a vehicle that was engulfed by the Woolsey Wildfire just outside of Malibu Creek Park, CA. Photo Credit: Jake Di Giovanni. DISCUSSION: As Californians continue their recovery efforts from the recent Camp and Woolsey wildfires, many questions have been raised over the unprecedented intensity of these fires and what it means for the future of several California communities. And while they are nothing new to the region, the two most recent events have been regarded as being some of the worst wildfires in state history. Much like tornadoes and hurricanes, these natural disasters can instantly threaten any and all future development and projects for towns and villages. To understand what makes these wildfires a unique challenge for California every fire season, it is equally important to understand the ingredients that are required for all fires: heat and fuel. Rapid, sudden heat transfer on a dry, combustible surface can lead to a spark via anything from natural phenomena, such as lightning strikes, to human activities. Once a flame is produced, it will grow and shrink depending on the amount of fuel that is available; sources of fuel range from dry grasses and shrubs to entire forests and, of course, flammable structures. If left unchecked, an uncontrolled fire with sufficient enough fuel will take on a life its own, becoming a wildfire. In order for wildfires to be able to continue their expansion, they must have an untapped access to sources of fuel. As such, a wildfire’s greatest friend is the wind; if surface and near-surface winds are not strong enough to blow the embers of a wildfire into dry, unburned parcels of land, then they will simply land on smoldering remains and the wildfire will consume itself. This is where the infamous Santa Ana winds become a critical component for extreme wildfires. As katabatic winds, they occur when a dense, high-elevation air mass travels down to lower elevations via gravity. During the fall, synoptic-scale highs tend to develop over the Mojave Desert, and produce a clockwise flow over most of Southern California. As cool, dry air parcels travel downslope of the San Fernando and San Gabriel Mountains and into the LA Basin, they gain momentum and heat up, permeating over the urban and natural barriers of Southern California until they reach the coastline. As such, these hot, dry, and fast winds help to fan otherwise small brush/grass fires, turning them into massive wildfires like the ones that were witnessed this year. It should also be noted that katabatic winds also develop in a similar fashion in northern California and are referred to as the Diablo winds.  The synoptic-scale mechanisms involved in producing the Santa Ana winds. Photo Credit: Joseph Serna, LA Times. It’s for these reasons that fire season is such a dangerous time for those living downwind of both the Santa Ana winds in southern California and the equivalent winds in Northern California. When these katabatic winds are at their strongest, the smoke from these wildfires can travel well-beyond their sources and deteriorate air quality across vast distances. Moreover, embers from wildfires are transported through the air, flying across entire neighborhoods and physical boundaries, before settling on new and potentially flammable surfaces. As ABC reporter Morgan Windsor wrote in his article on the two wildfires, the Woolsey wildfire eventually crossed the 101, devastating several upscale towns on the other side of the freeway, including Malibu, CA, and Calabasas, CA. Uncontrolled wildfires can travel at up to 14-15mph, meaning that those who are in their immediate paths can physically see the landscape combust as before their eyes. Unfortunately, this was exactly what happened to residents in Paradise, CA, which was completely decimated and became the deadliest wildfire in California history, with 83 people pronounced dead at the time of this publication.  The mechanics behind the Santa Ana Winds in Southern California. Photo Credit: Joseph Serena, LA Times. With cleanup efforts currently underway all over the state, many questions have once again been raised regarding the risks that wildfires pose to vulnerable communities that are already dealing with a struggling housing market. As writer for the LA Times Liam Dillon recently wrote in her piece on the California housing crisis, thousands of homes have been destroyed this year alone due to wildfires, some of which were caused by human activity. On top of that, the state's depleted housing stock has only worsened the crisis, and could pose further challenges for the development of areas that are located in at-risk areas. As such, these communities may have to start to consider increasing fire awareness and safety in order to limit any future wildfires from reaching the same levels of destruction as what has been seen this year. Indeed, the state of California will soon need to address these economic issues head-on in order to ensure that recovery efforts can continue smoothly and that homeowners in communities like Paradise, CA, are as informed as possible when it comes to wildfire safety. Unfortunately for California, these natural disasters will never go away, as they are as integral to the climate of the state as tornadoes are to Tornado Alley, or as hurricanes are to the Gulf Coast. Thankfully, local fire stations, emergency services, and forest management will continue working together to handle these sorts of emergencies. As for the residents of the state begin returning to their lives, the best thing they can is to become more knowledge about wildfires and ensure that they do their part in preventing unintentional, man-made burns in the future. To learn more about fire weather and fire weather education, be sure to click here! © 2018 Meteorologist Gerardo Diaz Jr. References: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/wildfires/ https://abcnews.go.com/amp/US/california-marks-month-deadly-wildfires-ripped-state/story?id=59697334 https://amp.miamiherald.com/news/business/article222706710.html https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-fire-winds-explainer-20171205-htmlstory.html  DISCUSSION: On November 8, a wildfire began in Butte County, California as the area was under very dry conditions due to a lack of rain for much of Northern California. The Camp Fire, as it is known, spread rapidly as a result of dry conditions and high winds in the area. In its destructive state, the Camp Fire engulfed the town of Paradise as well as costing 84 civilian lives. The Camp Fire destroyed or damaged nearly 14,000 buildings many of which were single family houses. In addition, about 800 residents from the area affected by the fire were reported missing. The fire was officially contained on November 25 after burning over 150,000 acres of land. The cause of the fire is still under investigation as it was started right near the power lines of Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) in Butte County.
Among the meteorological conditions that helped the fire spread the smoke, was due to a persistent ridge of high pressure that was there for almost a month and a half. The ridge of high pressure was blocking much of the storms from the Pacific to climb up towards Oregon and Washington which led to the really dry October for much of Northern California. In addition, the ridge had played a factor in the smoke in the Bay Area as it kept much of the smoke blowing into the Bay Area rather than a sea breeze from the Pacific Ocean. Also, the ridge affected the smoke by keeping it close to the surface due to the subsidence, or sinking air, that is often affiliated with a ridge of high pressure. The smoke from the Camp Fire had reached the San Francisco Bay Area on the same day and continued for almost two weeks due to a persistent ridge of high pressure over California. The smoke had caused major problems in the Bay Area such as causing the 2.5 μm (micrometer) particulate matter (PM2.5) to be measured at unhealthy levels which led to the cancellation of many schools and colleges as well as several high school football playoff games. In addition, the high levels of smoke and particulate matters led to heavily reduced visibility at airports including San Francisco International Airport where there were lengthy delays due to the visibility. The Camp Fire is the most deadliest fire in the past century in the United States since the devastating 1918 Minnesota fire in which over 400 people died. To learn more about fire weather and fire weather education, be sure to click here! © 2018 Meteorologist JP Kalb |
Archives
March 2020
|
RSS Feed